The National CollegePossible Worlds
Possible World Theory and Film
Andrea Laurent
This essay explores the possibility of using possible world theory to analyse film. Much of the discussion is relevant to science fiction as a genre, and has been developed through a consideration of several films from this genre, in particular eXistenZ (Cronenberg, 1999, Canada) and The Matrix (Wachowski bros, 1999, USA). A viewing of the film eXistenZ initially prompted this line of enquiry. The film articulates an alternative reality and invites the viewer to wonder whether this can be described as a possible world or future.
The definitions and usage of the terminology of possible worlds are examined and informed by theoretical approaches to questions of ontology, specifically referring to the work of Ruth Ronen. The usefulness of possible world theory is explicated as an analytical approach in conjunction with cultural theories. Despite the fact that the films use possible worlds as one of the fundamental vehicles not only of their plot but also their 'spectacle' (and therefore spectator engagement) it may not be possible world theory alone that offers the most useful discursive terms in which to discuss the films. Rather, it is a return to certain aspects in the field of cultural theory that allows a response that can accommodate the contradictions and multiple readings that the films offer.
What is a possible world?
Ruth Ronen explains that possible worlds, as concepts or metaphors, can explain 'the relations between the actual state of affairs and other modal possibilities' 1993, p.29). Possible worlds have a heuristic power - helping to learn, guiding in investigation, using or obtained by exploration of possibilities rather than by following set rules. Certain philosophers have valued this power above the arguments that lead to question or deny the ontological status of a possible world. They enable philosophers to study the possible as well as the actual. She does not claim that these possible worlds actually exist in a physical sense, 'different philosophers ascribe different degrees of realism to possible worlds' (Ronen, 1993, p.30).
Ronen identifies the ways in which possible worlds are used as conceptual tools, fictional constructs or logical extensions of metaphysical thought: possible worlds are theoretical tools in modal logic (the study of possibility and necessity). A possible world is a theoretical entity in itself. It is used as a point of departure in logic, philosophical inquiry, and the deconstruction or analysis of fiction. She locates possible worlds as a recognised and recognisable way of theorising, an activity of thought as well as a product of thought, which appears across numerous disciplines. By defining or describing possible worlds in this way, Ronen explains and elucidates how they have crossed over from the terms of the discipline of their origin (philosophy) to the terms of an associated but very different 'discipline' or field of thought, the literary theory of fictionality. Ronen also identifies a key difference, or transmutation that possible worlds undergo when this movement takes place.
'Philosophers, by constructing an ontological domain for categories of linguistics and logic, approach possible worlds as a model for substantiating these abstract categories. In literary [and art] theory possible worlds serve to name concrete artistic phenomena; that is possible worlds work as a lexicon destined to name and explicate a set of referential problems that fiction raises' (Ronen, 1993, p.29-30).
It would seem initially that both eXistenZ and The Matrix could also be considered as examples of such concrete artistic phenomena. To validate this argument, there must be an understanding of the terms under which a film can be interpreted as a possible world. A possible world must be posited with or against a 'reference world'. Ronen describes how it can often be as varied as the possible worlds. 'In logic the notion of reference world is relational [any possible state of affairs can serve as a reference world] whereas in literary theory the reference world is automatically identified with the actual world' (Ronen, 1993, p.30), whether 'the actual world' is seen as a cultural construct constantly changing, or whether in identifying an 'actual world' the theorist presupposes a stable epistemology enabling our unproblematic access to a 'reality'.
Although these parameters are important to comprehend possible world theory and its origins, it is the issues that surround the interpretation of accessibility in literary theory that have more resonance to a discussion of film. One example is that the individual's belief system becomes a reference world.
'The notion of the actual is replaced with that of propositional attitudes, the sum total of which constitutes one's encyclopaedia and hence one's ad hoc reference world […] A's world of reference is therefore an encyclopaedic construct [varying historically and culturally]; a propositional attitude is dependent on the assumptions of a given encyclopaedia and accessibility is a matter of formally and objectively comparing two cultural constructs' (Ronen, 1993, p.37).
Ronen cites literary theorists who have utilised possible world theory in their analysis of fiction.
'[Umberto] Eco, another literary interpreter of possible worlds, rejects a naively realist conception of reality. Accessibility, he claims can only hold between two sets of a similar order. Rational constructs [that is, possible worlds] cannot be compared with something which is given like the world of our experience. The world of reference, and not only possible worlds, therefore must be postulated and dealt with as a cultural construct' (Ronen, 1993, p.36).
This indicates that if the reference world and the possible world are seen as cultural constructs, both can be investigated and interpreted without the ontological problems that surround the notion of 'reality'. Both films suggest that control of technology also means the control of reality, conceptually challenging our perception of the body and the actual world.
Although Ronen considers how and why discourse on possible worlds has migrated from philosophical into literary-theoretical contexts, it could be argued that her findings are equally applicable to a cinematic rather than a literary context, as both media, while different, in essence present a fictional world. However, film is not entirely the same as literary fiction, the moving image having representational status. Therefore, the argument must include a consideration of special effects and spectacle as they pertain to possible worlds and film. 'film is more potent and more accessible [than literature]' (Cronenberg, 1997, p. 106). It is this very notion that may prompt a viewer to wonder whether a film could be a possible world.
This discussion resurfaced in a recent debate in Screen, where it was taken up through a questioning of whether film could be viewed in terms of a possible world. Warren Buckland published an analysis of the films Jurassic Park (Steven Spielberg, 1993, USA) and The Lost World (Steven Spielberg, 1997, USA) that brought together science fiction, possible worlds and aesthetic realism. He claims to form the basis for his argument in modal logic, justifying his argument in the following way:
'A possible world is a modal extension of the 'actual world'. fiction on the other hand we can think of as a purely imaginary world that runs parallel to, but is autonomous from, the actual world. Due to the scientific research underlying both [films] - extraction of prehistoric DNA from insects fossilised in amber - I will argue that both films articulate a possible world because they show one possibility that can emerge from a state of affairs in the actual world' (Buckland, 1999, pp.177-178).
Buckland's line of inquiry was initially prompted by the believable recreation of dinosaurs. This genre of film (which presents a visually realistic alternative reality), explicitly invites the viewer to ask whether this can be an articulation of a possible world. Buckland has taken a leap of faith and attempted to discuss the role of digital special effects in this subject, which provides a conceptual framework in which to re-open a discourse on the duality between image (spectacle) and narrative. He also directs attention to the heuristic value of using possible worlds to compare two sets of phenomena or states of affairs.
'One advantage of the theory of possible worlds is that it explores the interface between a film and social reality' (Buckland, 1999, p.191). In a sense, film theory has long explored this area without referring to possible worlds but to psychoanalytic theory and cultural theory. Scott Bukatman uses science fiction films and the work of cultural theorists to explore the social reality of the information age. Maire- Laure Ryan points out that: 'The pragmatic purpose of counterfactuals is not to create alternative possible worlds for their own sake, but to make a point about [the actual world]' (Ryan, 1991, p.48).
In terms of Buckland's conclusions, eXistenZ and The Matrix may be approached in the following way; if the developments in technology today allow virtual reality to become so realistic that we can no longer discern or determine whether we are in a simulation or in the real world, the film represents a possible world and shows a possible outcome.
'Because they are grounded in the actual world, possible worlds cannot simply be dismissed as a jeux d'esprit, an entertaining diversion from the determinism of only thinking about what already exists or existed. Possible world theory enables us to see the contingency of both historical and cultural events, and even natural laws such as biological evolution' (Buckland, 1999, p. 181).
C. Paul Sellors, who published a response to Buckland's theories, sees the value of applying the 'possible worlds' argument in modal philosophy to film studies; it can initiate 'metaphysical concepts about the nature of filmic representation' (Sellors, 2000, p. 212). However, he questions how Buckland arrived at his conclusions using the realistic nature of digital images as a basis for claiming that films articulate possible worlds.
A possible world is not a full separation from the world, the world and its images can be held apart in critical tension, and possible worlds provide this framework. 'Common sense about fictional film suggests that spectators look in on a fictional world that exists a priori, yet the main body of film theory contends that film spectation is a creative or constructive process' (Sellors, 2000, p. 215).
The fact that a film presents a possible world in a visual way may be a key invitation but also a key limitation of looking at films only in the context of possible world theory. Within cultural theory, themes such as spectacle and simulation in the films may be investigated under the conceptual framework offered by possible world theory. Questions of reference within and without the film can be addressed using this framework.
Whether a film can be seen as a fully realised world or as a non-actual possible world on an ontological level, is not a useful question; it hinders discussion on how the fictional/possible world comments on the 'actual' world. Possible world theory introduces the 'counterfactual', which can be used to investigate how the films comment on the actual world. 'Possible worlds introduce a new conceptual lexicon: two sets of phenomena are interpreted by a common conceptual tool' (Ronen, 1993, p. 38). 'The pragmatic purpose of counterfactuals is not to create alternative possible worlds for their own sake, but to make a point about [the actual world]' (Ryan, 1991, p. 48).
Both eXistenZ and The Matrix offer critiques of the relationship between human beings and technology. They conduct an investigation into the real, including our postmodernist sensibilities. The films provide a portrayal of mainstream cultural phenomena that are developing rapidly. By raising questions on the theme of humanity merging with technology, they explore the post-modern notions of 'fragmentation, hybridisation, and a "love-hate" relationship with technology ' (O'Brien, 1993, p.25).
The objective of this analysis was to discover the practical application of the framework provided by possible world theory and cultural theory to make reference to the actual world. In an exploration of the use of referents set up by the films chosen, their temporal and spatial instability offer a critique of the 'material world' as a cultural construct. This critique establishes the importance of these possible world films with regard to subjectivity in the information age.
Bibliography
BUCKLAND, Warren, 'Between science fact and science fiction: Spielberg's digital dinosaurs, possible worlds, and the new aesthetic realism', Screen, summer, 1999, pp.177-192.
BUKATMAN, Scott, Terminal Identity, Durham and London: Duke University Press, 1993.
ECO, Umberto, 'Postmodernism, Irony, the Enjoyable', in Peter Brooker (ed.), Modernism/Postmodernism, London and New York: Longman,1992, pp. 225-234.
O'BRIEN, Paul, 'Metal and Meat', Circa, no.65, autumn 1993, pp.29-40.
RONEN, Ruth, 'Possible worlds between the disciplines', British Journal of Aesthetics, January 1993, pp. 29-40.
RYAN, Maire L., Possible world, artificial intelligence, and narrative theory, Indiana University Press: Bloomington, 1991.
RYAN, Marie L., 'Heterocosmica: fiction and Possible worlds. Review', Style, fall, 1998, pp. 1-6.
SELLORS, C. Paul, 'The impossibility of science fiction: against Buckland's possible worlds', Screen, summer, 2000, pp. 203-216.
